WOMEN IN HIGH-VALUE AGRICULTURE: CHANGING GENDER ROLES IN LARGE CARDAMOM VALUE CHAIN IN EASTERN NEPAL

Abstract

I followed Quandt (2018), Meuwissen et al. (2019) to assess the livelihood resilience of farmers. I used the Value Chain Analysis framework to map and interpret gender division of roles across the value chain. For this, I adapted the indicators suggested by Haggblade et al. (2012) and Farnworth (2011). In addition, I followed Ahmed et al. (2018) to analyse the influence of HVA on gender relations, and Trienekens (2011) to analyse market access constraints. I developed the conceptual framework of this research from a thorough review of evidence, concepts and theories, and policies regarding this topic. I applied qualitative-led embedded mix-method research design for data collection and analysis. I collected data from Rong of Ilam district and Birtamod of Jhapa district. For qualitative data, I conducted in-depth interviews (IDIs-56), interviews with stakeholders (23), focus group discussions (FGDs-4), case story documentation (10) and field observation. I prepared a separate checklist for each technique. For quantitative data, I conducted surveys in 512 households. I prepared separate questionnaires for male and female individuals from the same household. I did thematic analysis for the interpretation of qualitative data. I also used the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) technique for descriptive analysis of quantitative data. I then integrated qualitative and quantitative analysis to derive findings. My first findings reveal that large cardamom contributes to financial asset building of farmers at the start and then enhances other livelihood assets. These assets then reinforce each other to make a shift in the livelihood of farmers. Large cardamom provides comparative advantages to other HVA crops for several reasons. It is a perennial crop with long product life, there is easy availability of inputs, first level of value addition can be done locally, it can be traded at any time, and it offers a high price in comparison to alternative HVA crops. At the time of risks, farmers’ spontaneous adaptive responses include mobilisation of financial resource, crop diversification, changing employment conditions, and switching to non-farm jobs. My second findings demonstrate that the division of roles is less gendered at production and more gendered in post-production nodes in the large cardamom value chain. Though roles are less gendered in production nodes, women have lower participation in nursery, irrigation, transportation and harvesting, and higher participation in separation of pods, weeding, cleaning, fertilisation, and planting. In post-production, drying, weighing, and labelling, loading, and unloading are solely done by men, whereas head-and-tail cutting, cleaning, and grading are the preserve of women. In such division of roles, women’s capabilities are linked closely. It was also seen that when women possess similar capabilities to men, the proportion of participation of women in such roles is high and vice versa. In specific, male-dominated roles are those that require physical strength, mobility, knowledge, and skills. Women dominate in roles that require less mobility, high patience, and flexibility in working hours. Women’s capabilities and choice of roles are limited by household and care work with limitations for women in production. Due to differing access to role related resources, women’s conversion of capabilities into functionings is constrained. The third findings show that large cardamom has an influential role in changing gender relations. Large cardamom has increased women’s access to financial resources which they can invest in family food, purchase of household assets, children’s education, health and other areas of their choice. Engagement in large cardamom also provides them space to join groups and take public roles. This enhances their access to information, role related mobility, self-confidence in choice of roles, participation in household and financial decision-making, leadership in taking public roles, and allows them to develop capabilities of their choice. Enhanced women’s capabilities are reflected in changing gender relations. It was noted that men were sharing household and care work. There was increased wage opportunities for women and equality in wages for the same work. This had led to narrowing income gap between spouses. Likewise, there was increased recognition of women’s roles as well as increased women’s influence in farm, family, and financial decision-making. Women’s leadership in public roles is trusted, meaning patriarchal social norms are being flexible. My fourth findings reveal that there is a narrow scope to access large cardamom market beyond India. Information regarding the size of market in the countries of Middle East and industrialised countries for Nepali large cardamom is not clear. Reaching the world market is also difficult because of strict food quality standards, high tax and tariffs, complex procedure, and high dependence on Indian transportation infrastructures. In this context, India provides a reliable market for large cardamom as Nepali traders are familiar with export requirements to India, an enabling environment for customs clearance, cultural ties among the traders and ease in communication. There is high scope for large cardamom in domestic market by substituting the existing users of green cardamom. These findings lead to the following conclusions. First, the commercial farming of large cardamom and other HVA crops contribute to building resilient livelihoods of farmers. Second, the existence of less-gendered roles in production nodes of agricultural value chains is the result of women’s possession of similar capabilities as men. Likewise, the existence of gendered roles in post-production nodes of agricultural value chains is the function of women’s possession of differing capabilities to men. Third, the changing of gender relations correspond to women’s enhanced capabilities from their engagement in large cardamom and other HVA crops. Such changes indicate the progress on women’s economic empowerment. Fourth, leaving land-locked context, export market diversification is challenging because of complicated import procedures, high-tax and tariffs, poor infrastructures, and the Indian interest play influential role. Finally, this study contributes to the existing knowledge, policies, provides practical suggestions, and opens avenue for future research. To strengthen farmers’ adaptive capacity against climate and market uncertainties, spontaneous response is not enough. So, a planned adaptation in support from institutions is suggested. I reaffirm that government policy of commercialisation of HVA has positive contribution to reducing male outmigration and optimum utilisation of available land. In practice, policies in practice have yet to address the issues of small women farmers’ issues linked to extension services. A separate market study for large cardamom market is suggested to resolve current ambiguity on market diversification. The capabilities approach provides suitable analytical framework to assess gender inequalities in the agricultural value chains. A future scope for the research can be exploring the role of women’s collective capabilities in analysing gender inequality in the agriculture.