| dc.description.abstract | I followed Quandt (2018), Meuwissen et al. (2019) to assess the livelihood
resilience of farmers. I used the Value Chain Analysis framework to map and interpret
gender division of roles across the value chain. For this, I adapted the indicators
suggested by Haggblade et al. (2012) and Farnworth (2011). In addition, I followed
Ahmed et al. (2018) to analyse the influence of HVA on gender relations, and
Trienekens (2011) to analyse market access constraints. I developed the conceptual
framework of this research from a thorough review of evidence, concepts and theories,
and policies regarding this topic.
I applied qualitative-led embedded mix-method research design for data
collection and analysis. I collected data from Rong of Ilam district and Birtamod of
Jhapa district. For qualitative data, I conducted in-depth interviews (IDIs-56),
interviews with stakeholders (23), focus group discussions (FGDs-4), case story
documentation (10) and field observation. I prepared a separate checklist for each
technique. For quantitative data, I conducted surveys in 512 households. I prepared
separate questionnaires for male and female individuals from the same household. I did
thematic analysis for the interpretation of qualitative data. I also used the Statistical
Package for Social Science (SPSS) technique for descriptive analysis of quantitative
data. I then integrated qualitative and quantitative analysis to derive findings.
My first findings reveal that large cardamom contributes to financial asset
building of farmers at the start and then enhances other livelihood assets. These assets
then reinforce each other to make a shift in the livelihood of farmers. Large cardamom
provides comparative advantages to other HVA crops for several reasons. It is a
perennial crop with long product life, there is easy availability of inputs, first level of
value addition can be done locally, it can be traded at any time, and it offers a high price
in comparison to alternative HVA crops. At the time of risks, farmers’ spontaneous
adaptive responses include mobilisation of financial resource, crop diversification,
changing employment conditions, and switching to non-farm jobs.
My second findings demonstrate that the division of roles is less gendered at
production and more gendered in post-production nodes in the large cardamom value
chain. Though roles are less gendered in production nodes, women have lower
participation in nursery, irrigation, transportation and harvesting, and higher
participation in separation of pods, weeding, cleaning, fertilisation, and planting. In
post-production, drying, weighing, and labelling, loading, and unloading are solely
done by men, whereas head-and-tail cutting, cleaning, and grading are the preserve of
women. In such division of roles, women’s capabilities are linked closely.
It was also seen that when women possess similar capabilities to men, the
proportion of participation of women in such roles is high and vice versa. In specific,
male-dominated roles are those that require physical strength, mobility, knowledge, and
skills. Women dominate in roles that require less mobility, high patience, and flexibility
in working hours. Women’s capabilities and choice of roles are limited by household
and care work with limitations for women in production. Due to differing access to role
related resources, women’s conversion of capabilities into functionings is constrained.
The third findings show that large cardamom has an influential role in changing
gender relations. Large cardamom has increased women’s access to financial resources
which they can invest in family food, purchase of household assets, children’s
education, health and other areas of their choice. Engagement in large cardamom also
provides them space to join groups and take public roles. This enhances their access to
information, role related mobility, self-confidence in choice of roles, participation in
household and financial decision-making, leadership in taking public roles, and allows
them to develop capabilities of their choice.
Enhanced women’s capabilities are reflected in changing gender relations. It
was noted that men were sharing household and care work. There was increased wage
opportunities for women and equality in wages for the same work. This had led to
narrowing income gap between spouses. Likewise, there was increased recognition of
women’s roles as well as increased women’s influence in farm, family, and financial
decision-making. Women’s leadership in public roles is trusted, meaning patriarchal
social norms are being flexible.
My fourth findings reveal that there is a narrow scope to access large cardamom
market beyond India. Information regarding the size of market in the countries of
Middle East and industrialised countries for Nepali large cardamom is not clear.
Reaching the world market is also difficult because of strict food quality standards, high
tax and tariffs, complex procedure, and high dependence on Indian transportation
infrastructures. In this context, India provides a reliable market for large cardamom as
Nepali traders are familiar with export requirements to India, an enabling environment
for customs clearance, cultural ties among the traders and ease in communication. There
is high scope for large cardamom in domestic market by substituting the existing users
of green cardamom.
These findings lead to the following conclusions. First, the commercial farming
of large cardamom and other HVA crops contribute to building resilient livelihoods of
farmers. Second, the existence of less-gendered roles in production nodes of
agricultural value chains is the result of women’s possession of similar capabilities as
men. Likewise, the existence of gendered roles in post-production nodes of agricultural
value chains is the function of women’s possession of differing capabilities to men.
Third, the changing of gender relations correspond to women’s enhanced capabilities
from their engagement in large cardamom and other HVA crops. Such changes indicate
the progress on women’s economic empowerment. Fourth, leaving land-locked context,
export market diversification is challenging because of complicated import procedures,
high-tax and tariffs, poor infrastructures, and the Indian interest play influential role.
Finally, this study contributes to the existing knowledge, policies, provides
practical suggestions, and opens avenue for future research. To strengthen farmers’
adaptive capacity against climate and market uncertainties, spontaneous response is not
enough. So, a planned adaptation in support from institutions is suggested. I reaffirm
that government policy of commercialisation of HVA has positive contribution to
reducing male outmigration and optimum utilisation of available land. In practice,
policies in practice have yet to address the issues of small women farmers’ issues linked
to extension services. A separate market study for large cardamom market is suggested
to resolve current ambiguity on market diversification. The capabilities approach
provides suitable analytical framework to assess gender inequalities in the agricultural
value chains. A future scope for the research can be exploring the role of women’s
collective capabilities in analysing gender inequality in the agriculture. | en_US |
